Comprehension Strategies

Do you use cooperative learning strategies in your classroom?  Cooperative learning strategies can improve academic performance (Slavin, 1987), build self-esteem (Johnson & Johnson, 1989), and lead to more positive social behaviors (Lloyd et al., 1988). Cooperative learning can also benefit EL students by supporting language acquisition through peer interaction in a supportive and motivating environment (Kagan,1995).

For a great introduction to using cooperative learning strategies in the classroom check out this 14-minute video with this week’s webinar host Dr. Margarita Calderón. Also, cooperative learning strategies can serve as a great way to prepare students for college and career readiness; see this article for more information on how cooperative learning strategies can support instruction aligned with the Common Core. Or check out this Colorín Colorado article to read a little bit more about cooperative learning strategies and to get some ideas for how you can start implementing them in your classroom!  

Did you know--one study found that in 1^st grade classrooms, the average student spends only roughly 3.6 minutes each day interacting with informational texts? Yet, informational texts can be important stepping stones for learners at all levels, and engage learners around student-specific areas of interest like dinosaurs, space, coral reefs, etc. While instructors might sometimes shy away from using informational texts with EL students, they can provide meaningful opportunities for building vocabulary, acquiring background knowledge, and also engaging with content around the core principles of inquiry-based learning (questioning, research, comparing perspectives, and presenting content).  Integrating informational texts might require an instructor to create appropriate scaffolding to help all students access the material, but introducing them into students’ reading repertoire is an critical part of preparing students to be college and career ready.

Resources:

Caswell, L. J., & Duke, N. K. (1998). Non-narrative as a catalyst for literacy development. Language Arts, 75, 108–117. 

Duke, N. K. (2000). 3.6 minutes per day: The scarcity of informational texts in first grade. Reading Research Quarterly, 35, 202–224.

Jobe, R., & Dayton-Sakari, M. (2002). Infokids: How to use nonfiction to turn reluctant readers into enthusiastic learners. Markham, Ontario, Canada: Pembroke.

Visual Thinking Strategies (VTS) challenge students to ask and critically respond to who, what, where, when, and why questions, which often elicit not only higher order thinking skills, but also further inquiry that encourages peer-to-peer discussion and respectful debate. VTS can encourage students to engage their understanding of the world, academic language, and prior knowledge and experiences through the activation of visual sensory images. Some have argued that VTS aligns quite well with the Common Core English Language Arts (CCSS-ELA) Standards because VTS develops students’ comprehension, evaluation, and communication skills. 

Resources

Fanco, M., & Unrath, K. (2014). Carpe Diem: Seizing the Common Core with visual thinking strategies in the visual arts classroom. Art Education, 605(1), 28-33.

VUE Staff (2000). Introduction to visual thinking strategies. 

Yenawine, P. (1998). Visual art and student-centered discussions. Theory into Practice, 37(4). pp. 314-321. 

What activities do you use to help ensure that all students in your classroom are accessing and understanding the presented material? For English learners in your classroom, what supports and tools do you use to help engage them and build their comprehension?

Scattered throughout good lessons are check-in and review points. At these points, teachers can use questions, group discussions, and assignments to check on student engagement, comprehension, and any necessary supports students might still need to understand the presented material.

For English learners, a particularly effective activity you can use at these check-in points is concept mapping. Concept mapping activities allow students to use a combination of pictures and words to graphically organize the presented material and make meaningful connections between main ideas, supporting details, and even students’ background knowledge. Concept mapping lifts some of the linguistic pressure associated with sentence or paragraph-based review activities, and instead offers students a way to represent information visually (through drawn or cut out pictures, for example) along with words that can later be worked into sentences and paragraphs.

While concept map activities need to be intentional and clear, their wide versatility makes them highly effective and accessible tools in any content area.

For a closer look at some concept map ideas, templates, and examples, as well as some tools and tips to get you started, take a look at this concept map activity from Reading Rockets. 

When developing and delivering lessons for English learners, teachers should specifically consider not only form in language, but also think through the language functions required to understand and communicate content. Researchers have also explored the relationship between lexical and grammatical forms and functions in both oracy and literacy development. 

Examples of language functions include: comparing and contrasting, asking questions, describing, classifying, summarizing, sequencing, determining cause and effect, identifying relationships and patterns, and predicting. A valuable approach to support English learners’ content and language development is to explicitly identify which functions will be involved in a lesson, along with associated terms and phrases. For example, a teacher might provide sentence starters for predicting the outcome of a science experiment, identify specific words needed to compare and contrast historical figures, or demonstrate discourse patterns required for describing a number sequence for math.   

Resources

 Echevarría, J., Vogt, ME., & Short, D.J. (2013). Making Content Comprehensible for English learners: The SIOP^® Model (4th ed.). Boston: Pearson.

Schleppegrell, M. (2004). The language of schooling: A functional linguistic perspective. Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 

What activities do you use in your classroom to help challenge and expand your EL students’ background knowledge, writing, critical thinking, and critical analysis skills?

The Common Core State Standards (CCSS) place increased emphasis on students’ critical thinking skills, as well as visual media (e.g., maps, charts, images, videos, and graphs) beyond printed text. The CCSS stress that in today’s age of digitally-based literacy interaction, the ability to understand how various forms of media are used to elicit meaning and emotion, and convey information, is critical to successful interpretation of meaning in the world around us.

Due to the omnipresence of media, there are a myriad of opportunities for classroom integration. An important consideration when incorporating alternative means of presenting content involves ensuring authenticity and student engagement. One approach to addressing these needs is through the Visual Thinking Strategy (VTS). VTS activities are designed to help readers elicit meaning from both text and visuals. VTS-informed lessons challenge students to think critically about what they are seeing, how it is being used, and in what ways it is influencing them and their understanding of broader contexts.

VTS can be valuable for EL students through use in exploring vocabulary development, conducting written reflection, and activating background knowledge.

For a look at more information on VTS, check out this article, which includes examples and suggestions for getting started.

For a simple outline of how you can implement VTS-informed lessons in your classroom, take a look at this resource. 

For EL students, learning content in the math classroom may be challenging due not only to limited language comprehension, but also differences in how numbers, algorithms, and equations are represented and solved. For example, what is written as 1,000.25 in the U.S. might be presented as 1.000,25 in other parts of the world, units of measure also vary (e.g. Celsius, Kilometers, currency units), and the conventions and steps to solving equations can differ significantly. Check out more on these differences here! 

Writing for the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, Judit Moschkovich suggests that “classroom instruction should allow bilingual students to choose the language they prefer for arithmetic computation…rather than viewing code-switching as a deficiency, instruction for bilingual mathematics learners should consider how this practice serves as a resource for communicating mathematically.”

Math teachers working with EL students should encourage them to share the resources and knowledge they bring to the classroom for problem solving in math, and when possible, invite students to work through math problems using their native languages.

Resources

Moschkovich, J. (2009). Using two languages when learning mathematics: How can research help us understand mathematics learners who use two languages. Research brief from from the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. 

Cooperative Learning is an instructional approach centered around student-driven learning through the dynamic interactions and mutual accountability of small groups (Kagan, 1992; Kohonen 1992). Notably, cooperative learning is quite diverse in how it is employed, defined, and used throughout the literature (Ovando, Collier, & Combs, 2003).

Cooperative learning has been shown to be particularly beneficial for promoting academic achievement (Johnson & Johnson, 1981), building motivation in the classroom (Sharan & Shaulov, 1990), and developing peer-to-peer social support networks between learners (Johnson & Johnson, 1989). Moreover, because cooperative learning activities allow for continued language development and refinement through peer-based conversation and interactions, these activities are very helpful for EL students (e.g. Richards & Rodgers, 2001; Klingner & Vaughn, 2000).

Cooperative learning is an easy way to help students refine their academic and social language while also developing key social skills to propel their learning in the classroom.

For a brief overview of cooperative learning, take a look at this article from Colorín Colorado.

Or, for tips on using cooperative learning in your classroom, including information on how to establish your classroom’s groups, create lessons, and assess group work, take a look at this brief from WIDA.

Resources

Johnson, D., & Johnson, R. (1981). Effects of cooperative and individualistic learning experiences on interethnic interaction. Journal of Educational Psychology, 73, 454-459.

Kagan, S. (1992). Cooperative learning. San Juan Capistrano, CA: Kagan Cooperative Learning.

Klingner, J., & Vaughn, S. (2000). The helping behaviors of fifth graders while using collaborative strategic reading during ESL content classes. TESOL Quarterly, 34, 69-98.

Kohonen, V. (1992). Experiential language learning: Second language learning as cooperative learner education. In D. Nunan (Ed.), Collaborative language learning and teaching (pp. 14-39). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Ovando, C. J., Collier, V. P., & Combs, M. C. (2003). Bilingual and ESL classrooms: Teaching in multicultural contexts. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Richards, J. C., & Rodgers, T. (Eds.). (2001). Approaches and methods in language teaching. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Sharan, S., & Shaulov, A. (1990). Cooperative learning, motivation to learn, and academic achievement. In S. Sharan (Ed.), Cooperative learning: Theory and practice (pp.173-202). New York: Praeger.

Do you use peer tutoring or the buddy system in your classroom?

A great way to build classroom community quickly is to encourage student learning through classroom collaboration. It allows students opportunities to learn about each other and from one another, while also exploring content and becoming responsible for both teaching and learning. By incorporating the buddy system, or peer-assisted learning, activities in your classroom can also be valuable during the first few weeks of school, as students are becoming acquainted with their new environment!

The buddy system or peer-assisted learning activities can also be very beneficial for EL students because it invites them to practice and further develop language skills in a more friendly setting. Peer-assisted learning also promotes collaborative understanding, a sense of community, and cultural awareness, as students work to exchange content knowledge and personal stories and experiences.

There are also several key things to keep in mind as you integrate the buddy system or peer tutoring into your classroom. Having students work together can often be a delicate balance, especially when it comes to pairing EL students with native English speaking students.  Depending on your instructional goals, it may be that you choose to group tutor-tutee pairs near the same language abilities in order to promote interaction by both partners, and increase the learning exchange (Cichon, 1993). It is also suggested that teachers closely track student progression throughout the year, so changes can be made to groupings as language skills improve.

Ganis (2009) suggests that the opportunity to learn from peer tutoring activities are only as good as the individuals involved, meaning that the material presented to the pairs must be appropriate and learnable based on each student’s abilities.  Equally, students in peer tutoring pairs must be willing to work together and spend time clarifying, reviewing, and addressing content goals.

For more information on encouraging peer assisted learning in your classroom, check out this Reading Rockets article!

Resources 

Cichon, D. J., & Hutson, M. H. (1993). Evaluation of the Quincy School Community Council's Take And Give Program Final Report. ERIC ID (ED376752) Retrieved from http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED376752.pdf

Ganis, F. (2009). “Social Learning” Buzz Masks Deeper Dimensions: Mitigating the Confusion Surrounding “Social Earning” ERIC ID (ED507069) Retrieved from http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED507069.pdf